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the general Chinese population [33]. Additionally, researchers found that loneliness, social
exclusion, and quarantines were among the causes of 69 deaths by suicide in India during the
pandemic. Other factors included fear of infection, financial distress, and work-related stress
[34].
One WSPS report found that perceived isolation and loneliness were associated with
more self-reported sick days, more days of feeling unwell (i.e., presenteeism), and lower daily
effort (i.e., discretionary effort) [35]. The results suggested that workers who reported lower
loneliness and social isolation reported a minimum of 30% lower average cost to productivity.
Even frontline providers were not protected from the potential isolating effects of the
pandemic. Researchers found that many healthcare workers were advised to limit their time with
their loved ones and socially isolate themselves after work hours to decrease the risk of bringing
the virus to their families [36]. As a result, it was more difficult for healthcare workers to receive
support from their friends and families. Such social exclusion as a potentially higher risk group
for the virus was a predictor of distress in past epidemics such as SARS [37].
However, when both remote work and social isolation were examined as predictors,
studies suggested that remote work in and of itself does not necessarily cause social isolation and
that social isolation is the better predictor compared to remote work. In a Canadian sample of
1,055 university staff and 925 university students, researchers found that remote work predicted
presenteeism and absenteeism but only when remote work was also associated with higher levels
of social isolation [38].
Several other studies showed that workplaces could potentially mitigate the negative
impact of the pandemic on employees. Researchers examined mental health differences among
employed and unemployed individuals during the social distancing implementation of COVID-
